1 Contemporary people in their species-rich world are like the tenants of ashop full
of antique glass
who enter it at dead of night during a power cut, slightlydrunk. They know roughly where the display
tables are, but not well enough toprevent themselves from blundering into them and certainly not to
identify thecrashes of broken crystal, whether a vase or a bowl, a goblet or a tankard,
whetherVenetian, Bohemian, or ancient Roman. They scarcely perceive that each crashsignifies
the loss of something priceless, irreplaceable and uninsured; and they areapparently incapable of
taking the elementary precaution of using a flashlight andmoving with care.
2 We do not know how many species we are plunging to extinction. Apartfrom the higher plants of
a few countries, only the larger animals are beingmonitored sufficiently closely — and then
by no
means everywhere — forreasonably precise figures to be given. We do know that most of the
species havenot been evaluated, many have not been described, and some have not even
beennamed. We know, too, that we will never know the full extent of the destructionwe are causing.
Unique communities with strictly limited regenerative capacitiesare rapidly contracting before the
colonial fires of a desperate peasantry, theexplosive explorations of oilmen and mining companies,
the behemoths ofindustrialized forestry, and the persistent nibblings of innumerable goats.
3 IUCN's Red Data Book, the only authoritative source of information on theworld's threatened
animals, covers only vertebrates (animals with backbones): fish,amphibians, reptiles, birds and
mammals. The book lists more than a thousandspecies and subspecies known to be threatened
with extinction: 193 types of fish,138 amphibians and reptiles, 400 birds and 305 mammals. There
are almostcertainly more under threat. The Red Data Book volume on fish, for example, isweak on
tropical America, Africa and Asia where the status of freshwater speciesis little known. Similarly,
we have no means of knowing the status of small andinconspicuous vertebrates in areas such as
tropical rain forests that are known tobe exceptionally rich in species and are shrinking rapidly.
4 As for plants, lUCN's Threatened Plants Committee estimated that as manyas 25,000 are
threatened. This is a guess. But it is an informed guess, based onfigures for those parts of the
world that have been thoroughly surveyed. There areestimated to be between 200,000 and 250,000
flowering plant species. Theimprecision is due partly to the realization that there are species still
to
bediscovered in botanically unexplored regions of the tropics, and partly todifferences of opinion
among taxonomists (the classifiers of plants) as to whichforms in highly variable groups are
species and which subspecies or races. Surveysof the United States by the Smithsonian
Institution and of Europe by IUCN's
Threatened Plants Committee for the Council of Europe have shown that anaverage of
10 per cent
of the higher plants in those areas are threatened. Theproportion is much higher in vulnerable,
species-rich habitats such as islands, rainforests, deserts, Mediterranean-type areas, wetlands
and coastal sites. Forexample, almost 18 per cent of the native flora of the Indian Ocean island
ofSocotra are threatened; and as many as half of Hawaii's higher plants are at risk.
5 Threats To Biodiversity
1 Plants are threatened
in one of two main ways: by their wholesale removal bycollectors, or by
the destruction or alteration of their habitats. Precisely becausethey are so discriminating,
collectors put especially severe pressure on specificgroups of plants such as orchids and
cactuses. In some cases, the pressure is sogreat that many species will have disappeared
from the wild before we know theirrelationship with other creatures, notably their pollinators and
seed dispersers.
Since their pollination
and dispersal mechanisms are sometimes bizarre and oftenhighly
specialized, not only will a fascinating detail be lost for ever, but an insect orother animal
dependent on that plant may also be exterminated.
2 Habitat destruction is also the main problem for animals. Analysis of the RedData Book shows
that 67 per cent of the species listed are threatened by loss orcontamination of their habitats.
Other important threats are over-exploitation(affecting 37 per cent of species), the effects of
introduced exotic species(affecting 19 per cent), competition with people for food (affecting 7 per
cent) andaccidental killing (affecting 2 per cent of threatened species but having a muchwider
impact on species that are not yet threatened).
6 Why Does Wildlife Matter?
1 The history of human
use of plant and animal species shows the value ofrescuing species
from extinction and demonstrates that vanishing and apparentlyinsignificant species can
suddenly and unexpectedly become useful and important.
The 'pescado blanco' Chirostoma
estor, a fish which in the wild occurs in a singleMexican lake,
was until recently in danger of extinction as a result of overfishing,habitat degradation, and
predation and competition by introduced species. Now, asa result of good management and
artificial propagation, the fish is being stocked inseveral reservoirs and dams and a 15 hectare
(37 acre) farm is under construction.
2 Wild plants and animals are essential for modern medicine. They are useddirectly in the
production of medicines and other drugs and as starting materials fordrug synthesis, and they
contribute indirect}y both by providing ideas for chemicalcompounds that can be synthesized and
by helping in the general advance ofbiological, and hence medical, understanding. According to one
analysis, morethan 40 per cent of the prescriptions each year in the USA contain a drug ofnatural
origin — either from higher plants (25 per cent) or microbes (13 per cent)or from animals
(3 per
cent) — as sole active ingredient or as one of the mainones. The same study reports that in the
USA alone the value of medicines justfrom higher plants is about $3000 million a year.
Furthermore, of 76 majorpharmaceutical compounds obtained from plants, only seven can be
synthesized atcompetitive prices. Reserpine, for example, can be commercially isolated
fromnatural sources for about 50% of the cost of synthesising it.
3 The battle by plants and animals for space, food and protection frompredators and parasites turns
every species into a factory for the production ofchemical compounds. It would be impossible for us
to invent these compounds.Indeed there are so many of them that it may prove impossible just to
discoverthem, and certainly will be if species and habitat destruction persists. All that wehave to
do
is allow our fellow species to survive, and men will have a vast andincredibly variegated ideas bank
for as long as they survive.
4 Many industries besides the food and pharmaceutical industries are based, ordepend heavily, on
wild plants and animals, and many use them often in quiteunsuspected ways. For example, algin
from brown seaweeds is used in paints,dyes, building materials (insulation products, sealing
compounds, artificial wood),fire-extinguishing foams, paper products, lubricants and coolants in oil
drilling, andcosmetics, shampoos and soaps.
5 Natural areas and wild species supply a multitude of emotional andrecreational benefits. National
parks and other protected areas attract growingnumbers of domestic and foreign visitors. The
beauty and behaviour of all kinds ofplants and animals delight, inspire and instruct. The sounds,
shapes, colours,scents, textures and tastes of the natural world continue to inspire
musicians,architects, artists, designers, perfumers and cooks.
6 The beauty and vivacity of tropical forests could generate an income fromtourism quite as
substantial. In a few countries, a start has already been made.Luquillo Forest Park in Puerto Rico,
for example, attracts half a million visitors ayear. The potential is enormous, for there is a surfeit
of
sights and sounds todelight the visitor. In no other plant community are epiphytes (hanging
plants)more abundant or ostentatious. Nowhere else do so many trees exhibit cauliflory,the curious
habit of bearing flowers directly on the trunk or larger branches. Onlyin the tropical forest can the
visitor be quite so stimulated yet refreshed by theexuberant inventiveness of so many sounds at
once, by turns exquisite, absurd andastonishing.
7 The life of the seas is a treasure trove of beauty, amusement, emotionalstimulus and intellectual
challenge, right at the back door of all but 28 of theworld's 140 or so countries. Coral reefs have
the
visual richness of tropical rainforests with the advantage that they can be seen more easily, since
the visitor isabove or among the action rather than well below it. Fish are the easiest of allwildlife
to
watch. Molluscs have inspired an enthusiastic following, the miniaturearchitecture of shells making
them attractive both to the eye and to the hand.
8 The bond between people and the natural world is expressed by differentcultures in many ways.
Nations, provinces, communities and individuals oftenmake symbols of plants and animals. Some
most attractive landscapes, such as therice terraces of the Phillippines, are products of a
synthesis of culture and nature.
People become very attached
to places of great natural beauty with importanthistorical or other
cultural associations. The cedars of Lebanon, now reduced tomere remnants, have long been
lauded by poets, prophets and historians assymbols of strength and eternity.
9 Wildlife dominates the art, architecture and traditional ceremonies of PapuaNew Guinea. Animal
products are widely used as body ornaments and for culturalexchanges such as bride price. A
typical bride price payment might consist of 20goldlip mother of pearl shells, 3 bailer shells, 15
cowrie shells, 29 pairs of birds ofparadise, 12 pesquet parrot headdresses and 10 other feathered
headdresses. Birdsof paradise have long had a special place in native life, and the plumes are
covetedfor traditional ceremonies and bride price. The indigenous plume trade is
organizedessentially to meet a solid economic and cultural demand, deeply interwoven withthe
habits and traditions of tribes such as the Chimbu.
10 The study of plants and animals has launched new scientific disciplines offields of discovery.
Understanding of human genetics has been advanced byunderstanding the genetics of horseshoe
crabs and of fruit flies. Development andreproductive biology began with the study of sea urchin
eggs. Natural productsalso provide essential materials for scientific research. For example,
because of itsspecial properties, top-quality agar from red seaweeds is almost uniquely valuablein
microbiology as an all-purpose culture medium.
Thus the natural world
is our laboratory, playground and temple as well asour larder, medicine
chest and store of raw materials. By impoverishing it we onlyimpoverish ourselves and our
children.
7 Preventing Extinction
1 Preventing the extinction
of plant and animal species demands the soundplanning and
management of land and water uses, supported by specific measuresto protect habitats,
prevent over- exploitation, and ensure that native species arenot harmed by introduced exotic
ones. Protected areas such as parks and reservescan preserve more wild species than can
zoos and botanical gardens, but to be fullyeffective both forms of preservation must be part of a
programme of rationalresource management. This is because it is possible to set aside in
protected areasonly a small proportion of the earth's surface. If these areas were to become
islandsin a sea of progressively deteriorating environments, the areas themselves wouldshrink
and support fewer species, being deprived of their support systems.
Furthermore, in the case
of migratory or wide- ranging animals, protected areascan safeguard
only the most vulnerable habitats. Outside those areas, additionalmeasures are necessary.
2 Where an introduced exotic species is threatening the survival of nativespecies, the introduced
species should be eliminated if possible. Given the extremedifficulty of eliminating introduced
species, however, every effort should be madeto prevent all introductions except those which,
before the introduction is made,can be shown to provide economic, social and ecological benefits
substantiallygreater than any costs, and over which adequate control can be exercised. Aproposed
introduction should be the subject of an environmental assessment,including a full inquiry into the
likely and possible ecological effects.
3 So many species are threatened by habitat destruction and habitats are beingwrecked on so
wide a front that it is essential to focus on those areas where thereward for a given effort will be
greatest. These are the areas where species facingsimilar problems are concentrated and,
therefore, where one set of conservationactions is likely to help many more than one species.
4 The most promising way of dealing with it on a global scale is through theConvention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora(CITES). CITES is still very
young. Drawn up in Washington in 1973 it did notcome into force until July 1975. There were then
10 parties. Now there are 58.
This represents a marked
advance and one which, in comparison with many otherinternational
conventions, represents a very decent growth rate. Yet so long asnon-members still greatly
outnumber members and so long as the ranks of theformer include certain prolific traders in
wildlife — Austria, Belgium, Japan amongthe developed nations, and Colombia, Mexico,
Singapore, in the developing world— control will be patchy, even if member countries are
performing as they should.
5 International agreements like CITES can provide a legally binding means ofensuring that the
conservation objectives they are concerned with are achieved.
Because of their force,
they are extremely important for the implementation of theWorld
Conservation Strategy. The stronger agreements need the constant,vigorous support of
governments, non-governmental organizations, andinternational organizations; and the weaker
ones need strengthening.
6 Besides CITES, there are two other strong global conservation agreements:the World Heritage
Convention , and the Migratory Species Convention. TheWorld Heritage Convention recognizes the
obligation of every nation to protectthose unique natural and cultural areas which are of such
international value thatthey are part of the heritage of all mankind, and the corresponding obligation
ofthe international community to help them. It is important that all nations join theConvention and
contribute generously to the World Heritage Fund set up to helpto finance it. The Fund does not
reduce the responsibility of each state to protectits unique natural areas, but it does provide a
means of ensuring that those areasare not lost because of a local lack of money or skills.
7 International agreements are the only effective way of protecting animals thatcross national
boundaries. The Migratory Species Convention, which obliges itsmembers to protect endangered
migratory species and to make special agreementsfor the conservation of those species whose
status (it was adopted on 23 June1979) and several major nations, such as Canada, the USA and
the USSR, havenot yet signed it.
8 Their reluctance is due to the agreement covering fish and other migratoryspecies of the seas.
Many major fishing nations do not wish to have their fishingactivities subject to the control of an
international conservation agreement. Yet, ofall the migratory animals most in need of improved
protection, fish are perhaps themost neglected. It is essential that a great deal of pressure be put
on governmentsto join the Migratory Species Convention and to implement it without delay. |
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