From the times of classical antiquity to the eighteenth century certain themes have dominated our view of nature in the West. (The rest of the world had its traits also, but they are more diverse than those of the West, and less widely exported.) The idea of a designed earth, for example, is strong in the Judaic- Christian tradition. This essentially theological idea envisages the earth created for man or else for all life with man at the apex of a chain of being. Before the coming of evolutionary theory and ecology this was the West's great attempt to formulate a holistic concept of nature. In this way as many phenomena as possible were brought within the scope of the central theme, demonstrating a unity which was the achievement of a Creator, but which paradoxically set man apart from other living things.

Although the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries saw criticism of this dualistic idea (not of the concept of design but of the relation of this order to the creative activity of the Deity), it could be extended to accommodate the theory of evolution when this began to emerge. At present, the study of ecology, whose message is essentially that of seeing systems as wholes and of perceiving the order within them, is a logical heir to this tradition of thought. Part of it also is the concept of 'man's place in nature': the postulation of a division of man from the rest of nature was recognized for instance in Genesis (I, 28-9) which says to men 'be fruitful and increase, fill the earth and subdue it, rule over the fish in the sea, the birds of heaven and every living thing that moves on the earth'. The persistence of this theme is symbolized by the papal encyclical of 1967, 'The development of peoples', which reasserts the idea of the creation of the earth by God for man. All secular conservation strategies also adopt this view that man and nature are different and must be reconciled.

A counter-argument to this theme finds it impossible to admit of a world being created especially for men when they themselves are often so wicked, and when the physical constitution of the world is obviously so imperfect as a habitation for them. In this tradition are the ideas of St Francis of Assisi, who asserted that, although man might be at the apex of creation, this did not mean that all life was for him and at his disposal. The same thoughts are exemplified in present-day environmental movement. The view is that that plants and animals must exist in their own right rather than just by leave of, or for the use of, man. In this context, man manipulates ecosystems as an observer and editor of the book of nature, not as an engineer who constructs monocultures for maximum profit.

A single, authoritative definition of religion remains elusive, despite religion's status as one of the oldest of human institutions. Still, several characteristics common to many definitions can help to stake out the rough boundaries of the discipline. In the most general terms, religion is an orientation to the cosmos and to our role in it. It offers people a sense of ultimate meaning and the possibility for personal transformation and celebration of life.To this end it uses a range of resources, including worldviews, symbols, rituals, ethical norms, traditions, and (sometimes) institutional structures. Religion also offers a means of experiencing a sustaining creative force, whether as a creator deity, an awe-inspiring presence in nature, or simply the source of all life.

Many of these characteristics give religion substantial influence over the environment. Worldviews shape attitudes toward the natural world; rituals have been used to govern resource use, especially among indigenous peoples; ethics influences resource use and distribution; and institutional power can be wielded in ways that have an impact on the environment.

An important aim is to develop a new ecological ethic from the wisdom of traditional knowledge holders. The routes are not simply the practical methods of resource management that have been part of their social evolution, but also the communication of ecological ideas in art and myth which merge the practicalities of survival with spiritual unity with the cosmos. The latter involves taking a non-dualistic view in which people and all other living entities exist as one community of beings in a dynamic physico- chemical equilibrium with an expanding universe.

These ideas of oneness with nature are often expressed through myth art and the demarcation of sacred resources