Private good
Private goods are typically traded in markets.
Buyers and sellers meet through the price mechanism. If they agree
on a price, the ownership or use of the good (or service) can be
transferred. Thus private goods tend to be excludable. They have
clearly identified owners; and they tend to be rival. For example,
others cannot enjoy a piece of cake, once consumed.
Public goods have just the opposite qualities.
They are non-excludable and non-rival in consumption. An example is
a street sign. It will not wear out, even if large numbers of
people are looking at it; and it would be extremely difficult,
costly and highly inefficient to limit its use to only one or a few
persons and try to prevent others from looking at it too. A traffic
light or clean air is a further example.
Public good
These are a very special class of goods which
cannot practically be withheld from one individual consumer without
withholding them from all, and for which the marginal cost of an
additional person consuming them, once they have been produced, is
zero . The classic example of a nearly pure public good is national
defence: you cannot defend the vulnerable border regions of a
country from the ravages of foreign invaders without also
simultaneously defending everyone else who lives within the
borders. Conservation of wildlife is another public good that is
becoming more important locally, nationally and globally. Wildlife
in this context may be considered to be a public heritage
asset.
The inability of potential providers to exclude
people who refuse to pay from nevertheless consuming and
benefitting from an expensive public good, usually means that very
many of the consumers of the good will act as free riders and
choose not to help pay for its provision. Consequently private
production of the good or service may prove unprofitable, and the
good or service thus may not be provided at all by the free market,
even though everyone might concede they would be better off with
some positive level of production of the good in question.
Actually, the public goods problem is not quite
as hopeless as the simple version of the theory makes it sound.
Various social arrangements have evolved to encourage the provision
of public goods. The non-profit "third sector" of the economy
devotes considerable effort to the provision of public goods
financed by voluntary contributions that are motivated by appeals
to people's "civic conscience" (or to their desire for the honours
and respect that the community spontaneously accords to "public
benefactors"). Voluntary contributions may also be gathered from
those people most intensely and deeply concerned about the
particular social need being addressed, or from those who can be
"shamed" into it by informal social pressures that withdraw status
and respect from people identified and stigmatized as free
riders.
In addition to these non-profit approaches, the
provision of public goods may often be handled through ordinary
market forces if some way can be found to link the consumption of
the public good to the consumption of some other good that does not
suffer from the "non- excludability" problem and hence can generate
a profit. A shopping mall offers good examples of such "tying"
arrangements. The mall management provides such public goods to
shoppers as security protection, a clean and pleasant environment,
public water fountains and rest rooms, entertainment, etc. without
direct charges -- but, since these amenities attract larger crowds
of customers to the mall and increase sales for the stores located
there, the mall's owners are able to command higher rents from
their tenants.
It should also be noted that at least a partial
provision of public goods often occurs when there is a single
person (or a rather small group of persons) who feel they stand to
benefit personally from a particular public good, to such an
unusually large degree that it is worthwhile for them to go ahead
and just pay for the whole thing, while ignoring the many other
small-time free riders as irrelevant.
The classic "solution" to the problem of
under-provision of public goods has been government funding through
compulsory (often, but not necessarily, accompanied by actual
government agency production of the good or service in question).
Although this may substantially alleviate the problem of numerous
'free riders' that refuse to pay for the benefits they nevertheless
love to receive, it should be noted that the political process does
not provide any very plausible method for determining what the
"optimal" level of provision of a public good actually is. When we
cannot observe what individuals are willing to give up in order to
get the public good, how can we (or the politicians) assess how
urgently they really want more or less of it, given the other
possible uses of their money? So any given public good will still
most likely be either under- provided or over- provided under
government stewardship.
This poses immediately the question of who, then,
provides public goods. Once they exist, they are there for all to
enjoy. So it is often the most rational strategy for private actors
to let others go first and seek to enjoy the good without
contributing to its production. This is a dilemma, that public
goods face. Without some sort of collective-action mechanism, they
risk being under- provided. Conversely, without collective action,
public bads - such as pollution, noise, street crime, risky bank
lending, and so on - would be over-provided.
Global public good
Global public goods are public goods whose
benefits reach across borders, generations and population groups.
They form part of the broader group of international public goods,
which include as another sub- group, regional public goods.
To make the notion of a global public good more
concrete, consider, for example, the eradication of small pox. Once
accomplished, the whole of humanity benefits - people in all parts
of the globe, present as well as future generations, rich and poor.
Similarly, if the international community were to succeed in
ensuring peace, everyone would be able to enjoy it. Much the same
holds true for well-functioning international markets. And averting
the risk of global climate change would secure inter-generational
as well as geographically widespread benefits, although people in
various parts of the world might benefit in different ways.
Similarly, international regimes such as those for civil aviation,
postal services, and telecommunications, or those recognising a
document such as a passport, all have significant properties of
"global publicness".
At the national level, states often step in to
facilitate the collective action needed to avoid over- production
of public bads, or under-provision of public goods.
Internationally, there is no such institution. Yet as history has
shown, if global public goods do correspond to national needs and
self-interest, states do manage to reach agreement on coordinated
action. But as shown in this article, international cooperation so
far has primarily been concerned with relations between countries
and at-the-border issues. Now the challenge is to motivate
countries not to let public bads spill across their borders and
turn from national public bads into global public bads. This
requires behind-the-border policy harmonisation, and places added
demands on states’ willingness to cooperate. International
cooperation is increasingly a global 'give and take', and so
probably a harder bargain than previously.
Therefore, it is essential to recognise that the
publicness of a good does not automatically imply that all people
value it in the same way. Poor people, who cannot afford to travel,
may not place the highest value on an international passport
regime. They may give preference to ensuring global health or to
truly free trade so that their goods can also find new markets.
Other people may rank the control of international terrorism or
stability of international financial markets highest. In
establishing a global public goods agenda, it is, therefore,
important to ensure that the top priorities of different population
groups are being considered equitably.
Also, global public goods must not be allowed to
further exacerbate existing inequities. Although public, some may
not be accessible to the poor. The internet poses this challenge.
And others, such as a free trade regime in an unequal world, may
give rise to a winner-take-all situation. If these concerns are
neglected, people’s and states’ willingness to
cooperate will suffer - and so will global public goods. Equity is
an important element of an effective global public goods
strategy.
But beyond its instrumental value, equity is
itself is a global public good. It is non-rival, in the sense that
if one person is being treated equitably that does not diminish the
chance of another person also to be treated in the same way. On the
contrary, the more accepted the principle and practice of equity
is, the more confident can other persons be that they will also
benefit from fairness and justice. And once accepted as a norm like
other global norms and principles such as human rights, equity is
non-excludable. Once accepted as a norm, it must, by definition,
apply to all peoples in all places. Otherwise, the norm would
falter and injustice rear its ugly head again. Therefore, equity is
best - and most predictably - ensured globally, as a universal
principle.
Non-state actors, both civil society and
business, contribute to the provision of public goods, including
global public goods, from human rights to technical norms.
Interestingly, non-state actors also were often the ones, who have
drawn attention to the importance of balancing the globalisation of
private activities with that of public goods. State actors seem to
be more constrained, maybe due to the territorial definition of
nation states. An added reason to link global public goods closely
to national interests. And also a reason to consider the need for
more tripartite international forums in which state actors as well
as non-state, transnational actors could jointly debate how to
balance private goods with public goods. People’s well- being
depends on this balance. Even the wealthiest person cannot do
without public goods, including global public goods. Neither can
markets. To function efficiently, they need property rights, legal
institutions, nomenclature, educated people, peace and
security.
Heritage good
When looking to set the value of cultural
heritage objects as public goods we must make use of socioeconomic
theory. Cultural heritage must be treated as a (consumable) good.
Further, according to socio-economic theory, cultural heritage
objects are 'common goods'.
Common goods are characterised by being:
-
Non-exclusive : A good is non-exclusive when a user cannot
technically be stopped from enjoying / consuming that
good.
-
Non-rivalling: The enjoyment / consumption of the good for one
user is not reduced by more persons enjoying it
simultaneously.
The private (and profit driven) market cannot
produce or supply sufficient non-exclusive common goods. The reason is simple: if you cannot
force someone to pay to consume a specific good you cannot generate
any profit! If profit may not be achieved for a ’good’
the mechanisms of the private market ensure that such goods are not
offered on the (same) market. So, if the mechanisms of the private
market alone decided, only those (immovable) cultural heritage
objects with a high market value would be protected. The logic is
similar for all common goods.
Now if this is the position of cultural heritage
in a market, how do we find out what value these goods have? From
the perspective of value creation / definition there is no defined
and unified methodology to specify the socio-economic value of
cultural heritage objects. But standard economic calculation
methods may be used to define the value of a cultural heritage
object – or better an aggregated group of cultural heritage
objects.
”The value a consumer gets by consuming a
market good is equal to the highest sum of money the consumer is
willing to pay to secure that good for his own
consumption.”
Consequentially the value of a cultural heritage
good is the highest sum of money a ’consumer’ is
willing to pay to ensure the possibility to enjoy (consume) the
good. This is the use value of the good. But, as other common
goods, cultural heritage is a ’non marketable
good ’ and also a non- renewable
good. The final estimation of value must also take into
account what we can call a non-use value.
In conclusion, the value of such goods must be
defined by analysing two types of values: Use value and Non use
value. The non-use value is one that must be added to the use value
to achieve a correct picture of the total value of cultural
heritage to society.