Definition
Charles Darwin wrote in The Origin of Species
about variability within nature. We know use the word
biodiversity as short hand for what Darwin described as the both
the origin and end point of evolution :
'Why, if man can by patience select variations most useful
to himself should nature fail in selecting variations useful, under
changing conditions of life, to her living
products?
What limit can be put to this power, acting during long
ages and rigidly scrutinising the whole constitution, structure,
and habits of each creature favouring the good and rejecting the
bad? I can see no limit to this power, in slowly and beautifully
adapting each form to the most complex relations of
life.'
If this was true when Charles Darwin first
presented his thoughts about evolution in 1858, it is equally true
today. Biodiversity is life around us. It is a wonder and a
delight, but it is also a concern and a responsibility.
It is vital to bear in mind that in effect life
is not created on earth today; all living cells are descended, in
an unbroken line, from some remote ancestor in the distant
geological past. We are a part of nature, the biosphere being an
intricate tapestry of interwoven life forms which help to
constitute the marine, freshwater and terrestrial landscapes of the
world and which give the richness to our natural heritage in the
United Kingdom.
And yet this natural inheritance is increasingly
under threat. Human activities are changing and destroying
habitats, natural ecosystems and landscapes on an increasing scale.
This has led to a demonstrable rise in the level of concern amongst
scientists and the wider public. It is now recognised that
biodiversity must be treated more seriously as a global resource to
be managed with the objectives of protecting and conserving
ecosystems and species. Management systems are applications of the
theories and principles of biodiversity to the goals of ecological,
economic and social sustainability. How to protect and enhance
biodiversity were therefore among the critical management issues
addressed at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992.
Explaining biodiversity
Biodiversity is an outcome of the animate economy
driven by photosynthesis which is the ultimate source of all human
biological resources arising from other living things. The
term is in common usage as the result of a form of bureaucratic
shorthand required by the writers of conservation strategies for
the variety of life and all that creates and maintains it.
That plants and animals constitute natural kinds,
or species, had become clear by the end of the 17th century when
John Ray defined them as groups of individuals that breed among
themselves. In general, species were accepted like other aspects of
nature as the result of special creation in each case, and there
was little incentive to inquire further.
In the 18th century, doubts began to arise
concerning the immutability of species. These doubts set
philosophers and a small number of naturalists arguing
theoretically about difficulties in distinguishing between
varieties of cultivated plants and domestic animals, which were
recognised as the diversified products of species, and species
themselves which were supposed to be unchangeable. Some
naturalists, including Linnaeus himself in his later years, adopted
a compromise allowing that species could have descended with
modifications from genera, but that genera were immutable.
With the increase in detailed knowledge of the
flora and fauna of the world consequent upon the final stages of
exploration, the problem of the distinction between varieties and
species became acute. With a boldness and a breadth of vision
amounting to genius, the French naturalist Lamarck cut the knot by
proclaiming that there was no essential difference between species
and varieties, that species like varieties were subject to change,
and that' transformism', not immutability, of species was the basis
of life. As it happened, there were two reasons why Lamarck's ideas
were not accepted. The first was that he undertook no analysis to
provide evidence for his notion of evolution it flashed across his
mind and he assumed its truth without taking the trouble to prove
it. Secondly, he attempted to give an explanation of the causes of
evolution which, unfortunately, raised opposition to the acceptance
of the concept of evolution itself. He supposed that as result of
new needs experienced by the animal, its 'inner feelings' or
subconscious activities produced new organs which satisfied those
needs. Not only was such a supposition unacceptable for the
solution of the problem of the origin of species of animals, but it
was totally inapplicable to plants. On the other hand, Lamarck
elaborated the view originally put forward by Aristotle, and held
by Maupertuis Diderot, Buffon, and Erasmus Darwin, but which is now
known to be without foundation, namely that the effects of use and
disuse of an organ during the lifetime of the individual could be
directly transmitted by inheritance to its offspring. There for a
time the matter rested.
Somehow the principle of divergence never got
quite enough emphasis in the Origin of Species, though it was
essential to explaining the history and directions of evolution.
Nonetheless, Darwin now realised that nature could be said to have
a discernible goal: that of a constantly increasing diversity of
organic types in any area. In effect, diversity was nature's way of
getting round the fiercely competitive struggle for limited
resources. So long as all organisms conformed to fixed types, all
wanting the same resources, conflict was inevitable. In contrast,
deviance from the norm could open a more peaceful route and a
well-rewarded one. The organism that was born different might find
a way to use its uniqueness and establish itself without the need
for competition. It might come to occupy its own special place that
none had ever occupied before, and not at the expense of another's
survival. The possibility did exist and had been realised, not by
one or two, but by several million enterprising founders of new
species and varieties. Eventually, of course, their descendents
might exhaust those newfound riches, and then only a fresh
initiative could avoid the resurgence of conflict.
Advantages of conserving biodiversity
With the politics of environment after Rio came a
need to produce strategic plans aimed at improving the lot of the
world's wildlife as a human resource. The advantages of
conserving ecosystems and wildlife had to be listed to support the
goals of global and local strategies.
Preservation of natural resources
Diverse
ecosystems hold significant quantities of untapped, yet precious,
biological resources.
About 80% of
the world’s medicines are derived from life forms.
Potential
goods and services may be unlimited, and the possible harms of
destruction unknown.
Recreation
There are
opportunities for hunting certain kinds of game, offering an
historical recreational environment.
We need
places to roam freely and engage in outdoor athletic and
recreational pursuits.
Life-support
Unbroken
forests remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and replenish its
oxygen.
There is a
parallel between the good of the system and that of the
individual.
Wilderness
related activities enhance and even remedy our physical
health.
Contact with
nature has potential psychological benefits to offset the mental
dysfunctions that arise from urban life.
Aesthetic experience
None of
nature’s landscapes are ugly so long as they are wild.
Wild areas
provide inspiration for the artistically and intellectually
inclined.
Spiritual values
Wild places
are the closest thing we have on earth to the original work of
Creation.
Conservation
has value as a symbolic gesture of love and respect for our
evolution and a defence of our future.
Contact with
large-scale biodiversity is necessary for the process of self-
realisation by establishing a relational reality of all things
including the non- human world.
Nature
reserves are resources in the search for meaning, for a new
creation story or mythology that places humans in a cosmic context,
at one with all creatures.
If the Earth
is alive as Gaia it deserves moral consideration.
Indicators of land health
Natural
ecosystems provide a base line, or measure, of land health, and as
models of a normal ecologically balance landscape.
Research and education
Maintaining
genetic reservoirs intact is instrumentally important because they
function as a great safety device holding a large portion of the
world's accumulated evolutionary and ecological wisdom.
Nature
reserves are outdoor classrooms for teaching proper human values
and developing a sense of valuation of all living things.
Diverse
ecosystems provide scientists with unprecedented locations and the
raw materials for all kinds of scientific enquiry.
Cultural support
The rich
diversity of the world’s cultures reflects a corresponding
diversity in the ecosystems that gave them birth.
The resident
species helped form, and continue to enshrine national cultural
values, and wilderness is the raw material out of which
civilisations have been created.
Wild areas
are potential sanctuaries from oppressive government.
Wilderness
preservation shows respect of the needs of the minority and is
therefore indicative of good democracy
Living in a
wilderness, even for a short time, strengthens social bonds through
sharing skills with one another.
Wildlife is a
legacy we are obligated to pass on to future generations.
Wild nature
is valuable because it exists regardless of, or in addition to, its
value as a means to some other utilitarian end.
Disease sequestration
Microorganisms will adapt from shrinking nature to prey on
urbanised humans.
Animal welfare
Animals, like
we, have the right to live unmolested and unharmed.